Abdulhamid II, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, implemented autocratic reforms during his rule, which lasted until his deposition in 1909. His modernization efforts were influenced by international affairs, including the American-Spanish war and German influence.

This document reviews Karen Armstrong's book "Islam: A Short History," highlighting its refreshing historiography of the Middle East. The author discusses the veiling of women in early Islam and pre-Islamic Byzantium, noting that it was influenced by Greek Christian practices.

This document discusses the impact of Western trade agreements and treaties on the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century, leading to economic and political decline. It also highlights how modernization efforts in Egypt resulted in it becoming a virtual British colony.

Karen Armstrong's "Culmination" explores the dissonance among early Middle Eastern Islamic rulers, which hindered their ability to repel attacks, including the Crusades.

This document discusses the "liberal age" in Egypt from the 1920s to the mid-1930s, highlighting how modernization and cosmopolitanism primarily benefited foreign elites while marginalizing rural and indigenous populations.